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One mechanism is the “bottom-up” mechanism, which refers to amplification of the direct total solar irradiance effect at the ocean surface via moisture transport feedback in the tropical Pacific (Meehl et al., 2008 Meehl & Arblaster, 2009). The SC influences surface climate through various mechanisms. A growing body of evidence has demonstrated that the 11-year solar cycle (SC) plays an important role in the decadal winter variability over the NAE region (Brugnara et al., 2013 Gray et al., 2010 Kodera et al., 2016 Thiéblemont et al., 2015 Woollings et al., 2010). Notably, these midlatitude circulation anomalies that influence China precipitation are likely generated by an external forcing to some extent. The NAE circulation perturbations can also impact downstream precipitation over China through a subtropical pathway (Ding & Li, 2017), which is characterized by a wave train that propagates along the winter Asian jet stream (Huang et al., 2018 Watanabe, 2004). ( 2014), the circulation anomalies over the NAE region are correlated with China precipitation through three different Eurasian teleconnection patterns. Apart from tropical SSTs, extratropical atmospheric dynamical processes, particularly teleconnections originating from the North Atlantic/European (NAE) region, also affect precipitation anomalies in China. Numerous studies have noted that the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO Chen et al., 2014 Wang et al., 2000 Wu et al., 2003 Zhou, 2011), as well as positive SST anomalies in the tropical Indian Ocean (Li et al., 2015 Li & Zhou, 2016 Wu et al., 2018), can increase southern China winter precipitation. Wintertime precipitation over southern China is known to be strongly affected by tropical sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies. Recently, the causes of winter precipitation anomalies over southern China have attracted increasing attention (Jia & Ge, 2017 Zhang et al., 2015 Zhou & Wu, 2010) but have not been as intensively studied as the summer counterpart. For example, in January 2008, an intense and long-lasting snowfall/icy rain event occurred over southern China, producing catastrophic consequences for society and the economy (e.g., Wen et al., 2009). However, severe rainfall/snowstorm events occasionally occur.
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Dominated by the East Asian Winter Monsoon, the most prominent winter characteristic over China is a cold and dry climate.